Month: June 2016

[ad_1]

Political campaigning for election of 1824 began two years earlier, as various candidates began to position themselves to receive their party's nominations. At one point, there were as many as 16 potential candidates for the Republican Party's nomination. Gradually, they were whittled down to 6 and then to 4: Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, the former Federalist from Massachusetts; William Crawford, the secretary of the treasury; Henry Clay, the Speaker of the House of Representatives; and Andrew Jackson, the military hero who had bee elected as a senator from Tennessee.

The party that had been so disciplined in bringing Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and James Monroe to office had lost its focus. Chaos reigned as competing interests lobbied for their chosen candidates in the upcoming presidential political campaign.

Without party organization supporting a particular candidate, the election campaign proved to be a mess. Voter turnout was very low, little more than 25 percent. Andrew Jackson led in both the electoral and popular votes, but by such a number that he failed to achieve the necessary majority of electoral votes. This meant that the election had to be decided in the House of Representatives.

According to the Constitution, only the leading three candidates were to be considered. Clay had received the fewest electoral votes, so he was eliminated. Crawford was suffering from a serious illness, misdiagnosed as a stroke, so he, too, was not considered in the House. The contest came down to John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson.

Clay was soon the focus of a different kind of political campaign: intense lobbying efforts by the backers of Adams and Jackson, who wanted his support for their candidates. Clay did not like Jackson, however, and did not think that he had the qualifications to serve as president. Clay met several times with Adams and ultimately gave his support (and his electoral votes) to Adams, who was then declared to be president.

[ad_2]

Source by Paul R Turner

[ad_1]

The Egyptian revolution of 1952, which was a coup d'état made by young military soldiers who named themselves "The free officers", it was initially aiming to over throw King Farouk. However, thing ran more smoothly than the free officers thought, they made more political change that just overthrowing the king, they abolished the monarchy and established the republic, and ended the British occupation of Egypt. The free officers, who were headed and founded by colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser, chose Mohamed Naguib to be the first president of the Egyptian Republic. However, his reign did not last long due to disagreements with Nasser which lead to his forced removal from office, and put in house arrest. Nasser took power in 1956, the people cherished Nasser, as they saw him as one of them; under his leadership he nationalized the Suez Canal, this even made him more charismatic and loved by the people.

After Nasser's death in 1970, his vice president, Anwar El Sadat took over the power and became the third president of Egypt. Most of the people were disappointed by Nasser's death, and did not think of anyone else who can rule them. So, in his first speech as a president, Sadat promised the people that he will continue what Nasser had started and that he will follow his path. However, later, Sadat took a different path than Nasser's. Sadat is well known for launching the 1973 war against Israel, and for signing a peace treaty with them after the war, which lead to the return of all Egypt's territories which were occupied by the Israelis under Nasser's era. Nasser's and Sadat's regimes are one of the most important in the modern Egyptian history. Their different characters played a great role in shaping the Egyptian political structure, as both of them had absolute powers as presidents. The base of the political structure did not change from Nasser to Sadat, the regime was still authoritarian with absolute power to the president, and however, each one of them used his absolute power in a different way that resulted in a big difference in the political structure of the country. In this essay I will illustrate Nasser's and Sadat's structure of the political system and to what degree they differed from each other.

Gamal Abdel Nasser was the leader who was almost worshiped by his people. He was incredibly charismatic and had a direct relationship with the Egyptian people. He used to always give public speeches that were very emotive and touching. He succeeded to build a common ground between him and the people, in his speeches he always referred to them as his "fellow citizens". Nasser managed to remove the gap between the ruler and the public; this improved his credibility and his legitimacy to the Egyptian nation. Moreover, Nasser was a down to earth, simple person. He did not live in a palace or in a luxurious villa; he had a modest small house. According to the movie Nasser 56, he refused to build a pool for his kids, as he declined to gain any benefits from his position. Nasser gave the low class jobs, houses, health insurance, free schools and land. In addition to, in the 1964 constitution he assigned half of the national assembly seats to peasants and workers. In his political decisions, Nasser used to consult and put into his consideration the opinions and comments of his cabinet; before taking the decision of nationalizing the Suez Canal, Nasser made numerous consults. The political system structure under Nasser was based on the socialist political ideology. Nasser was a socialist; he founded the country's sole political party: The Arab Socialist Union. He was a pan Arab nationalist; he made a short lived union with Syria.

Under his reign, he reformed the economy and made an agrarian reform by distributing land to the peasants. He initiated a centrally planned economy; he had a major nationalizing program that nationalized all the chief sources of income to the country, making the state the largest employer. Although the revolution promised a democratic rule, Nasser was an authoritarian dictator. He attempted to lay the groundwork for democracy, however, democracy is still absent in Egypt till our present day. Nasser owned a monopoly of power, when Nasser noticed the amount of control Abdel Hakim Amer; the chief of the armed force, Nasser striped Amer of his position and appointed himself the chief of the armed force. When Nasser became president, he aimed to put an end to all oppositions, he got rid of all the parties and abolished the Muslim brotherhood, and he established the only party The Arab Socialist Union.

As a result of having absolute power, there was no any legal legitimacy, the president can change the constitution whenever he likes, he changed the constitution 5 times, Nasser made a legal constitutional frame work to maintain and increase his powers. The coercive apparatus had a great role in Nasser's regime which was known for extreme torture for prisoners who might even be imprisoned for no charges. In his era, army soldiers were given the top policy management roles instead of politicians or diplomats. In 1956, after a lot of researches, reasoning and considering the risks, Nasser decided to nationalize the Suez Canal, this is one of the main decisions that people admire Nasser for. Nasser allied with the Soviet Union because he believed that in order to develop the country; it must have a proper army with good arms. Later in 1976, Israel attacked Egypt and took over territories, this incident led to the resignation of Gamal Abd El Nasser, soon after; people demonstrated and rejected the resignation, so Nasser decided to postpone his decision. Despite the Israeli victory in the 1976 war, Nasser succeeded to become a symbol of Arab victory and dignity, even though he could not do all what he promised but people were satisfied that he at least tried. In 1970 Nasser died in office and Anwar el Sadat became the President.

Anwar El Sadat, third president of the republic, was one of the free officers. Sadat's presidency was considered widely among the people that it is going to be short lived, and they assumed that he is merely a puppet of the former president Nasser who is controlled by Nasser supporters. Sadat surprised everyone by taking serious political actions that retained his powers as a president and enabled him to emerge as an independent leader. Sadat was a cunning and clever person, many incidents show that he had a decisive character by which he can reach unattainable goals, and two of these incidents are: his escape from political prison before the revolution, and the tactics of 1973 war that has depended on deceiving the enemy. Unlike Nasser, Sadat initiated a gap between him and the people, he did not make public speeches, and he preferred talking to groups of people and especially the parliament.

Sadat did not care to justify his actions, while some actions really needed justifications because they were refuted and considered bizarre, to the people; he can occasionally justify it to individuals who have the capability of seeing and asking him. Another notable difference between Sadat and Nasser, Sadat addressed the nation as his sons, he was playing the role of the god father and he believed that he is more knowing than anyone else. This can be noticed in his decision taking, he was a sole decision taker, and he rarely took advice or a consultant from his cabinet, even in the most serious decisions. For example, everyone was surprised when he stated that he was ready to go and negotiate with the Israelis in the Knesset. Sadat was so full of himself and arrogant, he gained tremendous self confidence after the 1973 war, and the nation considered him a hero. Sadat's ideologies were totally different than those of Nasser.

He was more western oriented he drifted away from the Nasserism by establishing a multiparty system and initiating a liberal economy and the open door policy (Infitah). He changed his political party from the Arab Socialist Union to the National Democratic Party. One of the focal differences between him and his Nasser is that Sadat is far less Arab Nationalist; he was more focused on the well being and the liberation of his own country that he signed a peace treaty with Israel after the 1973 war. Sadat was not in good terms with the Soviet Union, he expelled the soviet actors from Egypt before the 1973 war; however the soviet kept on equipping the Egyptian army with weapons and equipments throughout the war.

After the war Sadat was seen as a hero to the Arab world, but not for a long time, after he declared that he is ready to make peace with Israel, he was seen as a traitor by most Arab countries. Later, Sadat established relations between Egypt and the United States in order to negotiate for getting back Egypt's occupied territories, and he succeeded, and one of his famous quotes were "Russians can give you arms, but only the united states can give you a solution "(Simpsons Contemporary Quotations", p.14).

Nasser established a base political structure during his regime that Sadat inherited. Both regimes were authoritarian and shared the same policies that give the president absolute power and control over the country. What has not changed in both regimes are the monopoly of power to the president, the lack of legal legitimacy, the dependence on the coercive apparatus to eliminate opposition, manipulating the constitution to suite their practice of powers and the one dominant party, even though Sadat reinstituted the multiparty system, other parties acted like pressure groups. However, since the president has absolute power, then the personality of the president is a big deal in shaping the political structure.

As noticed, Sadat was really different in character than Nasser, thus the political system. As Sadat took over the presidency, he started his "Correctional Revolution", he started by purging Nasserites members in the government and security forces, and replaced them by professional diplomats and politicians. In addition to, changing the paths of foreign -domestic policies, economy and ideology; plus the imprisonment of many political forces including many Islamists. Nevertheless, there was more political freedom under Sadat; he took another step towards democracy. The multiparty system gave more space for opposition, which was extinct in Nasser's era. Sadat also gave the press more freedom, unlike Nasser who nationalized and controlled the press.

After 1973 when Sadat launched the Infitah, which is the open door for private investment which encouraged domestic and foreign investment in the private sector and ended the domination of the economy by the public sector, created a wealthier more successful upper class and a smaller middle class , however, negative and violent protests happened after Sadat decided to cut subsidies over basic food supplies, these protests forced Sadat to go back on his decision and reinitiate the subsidies. The Egyptian foreign policy witnessed a dramatic change under Sadat, from the expulsion of soviet actors, to the alliance with the United States. The most important point of change is that Sadat shifted Egypt from the policy of confrontation towards Israel, to a peaceful accommodation through the negotiations that took place after the war of 1973. This change in policy had three critical influences over the modern Egyptian history:

(I) Egypt got back all occupied territories that were overtaken in 1976

(Ii) Egypt declared the country of Israel

(Iii) Most Arab countries cut relations with Egypt, and Egypt was dismissed from the Arab league.

Finally, the last notable change in the structure of the political system is the long term alliance with the United States, which is still present until today. One of the main benefits of this alliance is that Egypt became one of the top recipients of American aid.

In conclusion, Nasser created a base political structure that has not changed, but it enables the person in power to have full control over the state. The strong base that Nasser built makes the person in power able to build his views and ideologies over it. And that is what happened, Sadat shifted Egypt's path, and we are still living the consequences, but what Sadat has fulfilled was founded on Nasser's base. And what can be concluded is that Nasser built the base of dictatorship in Egypt, and Sadat relied on it. So I can argue that the political system has changed under Sadat, but the form of government remained the same.

[ad_2]

Source by Ahmed Abou El Ezz

[ad_1]

All types of business analysis seem attractive and extremely efficient. However, one need to remember that real-life usage differs from all those plans, graphs, tables and other documents characteristic of business evaluation methods. In theory it looks simple, while in real life there can be certain problems with application of analysis results. PEST analysis is not an exception here. In theory analysis of all those 4 factors (political, economic, social and technological) works while problems may begin when top managers receive the very first results. In this article we will talk about application of PEST evaluation results in real life. However, to begin with, we need to define all 4 components of PEST analysis in order to evaluate their usage in real business environment.

Analysis of political environment has received a huge portion of criticism. Some business owners think that this is waste of time and money, claiming that politics stands out, thus having no ties with the economy. By the way, this is what most politicians would say. However, there is every reason not to believe them. Politics always influences economic situation and business environment. In real life, results of political analysis have to be applied in a cautious ways. Politics is a changeable field in which situation can change every minute. However, having correctly forecast political changes, business owners can enjoy substantial benefits. It is always important to design several scenarios and possible business reaction to various changes. In such a way the company will be ready to face any challenges since it has anticipated most of them.

Analysis of economic environment is a must for every company. First of all, every business is operating in a certain national or international economy that has own rules, norms and regulations. Every slightest change in the national economy may negatively (or just to the contrary, positively) influence business development. For example, rising economies offer great loan opportunities for businesses that can invest much money into own development. If economic analysts forecast worsening of economic situation, the company should work out new methods of business management. Very often, results of economic analysis are wrongly applied in real life. Thus, high inflation rate is not always a negative trend, and top managers should think of the ways to take advantage of such changes. The same concerns purchasing power of customers. If it goes down, then maybe it is reasonable to release cheaper products or services with fewer features.

Social trends are now playing an important role in business development. Business goes social – this is a hot trend these days. Business is a social phenomenon that can not stand apart of the society and its needs. Thus, social trends require due attention and analysis. For example, if people love spending time in social networks, then it may be reasonable to install social network features in cell phones and other communication devices.

To properly analyze technological factors, top management of the company should locate new technologies that are being used or developed in a particular industry. After that, the company must evaluate use of latest technologies and their impact on profitability.

[ad_2]

Source by Sam Miller

[ad_1]

The media is full of vitriol for Donald Trump.

Even amongst those political commentators who normally incline towards right-wing views, he's a figure often discussed in terms closer to naked hatred than objective political analysis.

Yet what is Trump really saying? Is he being misrepresented in the press when portrayed as speaking solely for 'the lunatic fringe'? Does he actually represent mainstream America rather more than his opponents would like to suggest?

The Pressures in US Society

All societies have stresses and tensions within them – and the US is no exception.

Since the 1960s, US society has changed out of all recognition and has arguably fractured along major fault lines. Those stress points are not exactly news and include things such as abortion, gay marriage, race, social care, gun laws, immigration, multiculturalism, economic management and so on.

Although it's very easy to portray these as typically Republican right wing versus Democrat left wing political inclinations, that's overly simplistic. There are people with strong opinions on all sides and it's misguided to assume all Democrats support abortion on demand because it's a "woman's right" or that all Republicans support free access to guns on demand.

Yet what has undeniably happened increasingly over recent decades is that liberal viewpoints captured the moral high ground and are today often represented as being 'mainstream', 'enlightened', 'just' and 'politically correct'. By contrast, viewpoints that argue against (eg) increased social care provisions are labelled as 'reactionary', 'outdated', 'oppressive' or the domain of marginalized cranks.

However, the intelligentsia in DC political and media leadership circles seem to have made the mistake of believing their own propaganda in this respect.

That's perhaps understandable because they'd 'seen off' the previous rumblings of groups such as the Tea Party. So, they hugely underestimated the frustrations in very large sections of 'traditional' US society who lacked an outlet for their views, fears, hopes and aspirations – and into that breach stepped Donald Trump.

Trump – A Voice for the Unheard

Whatever one thinks about individual elements of Trump's approach during the Primaries, there is little doubt that he has tapped into a vast reservoir of discontent in US society.

Nobody should doubt that Trump has the large-scale and spontaneous support of many in the US. His views, whether one agrees with them are not, are those of a large number of ordinary Americans who have been frustrated by not having a spokesperson.

In the past, Democrat Presidential candidates have portrayed this group as political 'dinosaurs', with views that have no place in modern America. Many traditional 'comfortable' Republican contenders have equally distanced themselves from this section of society, as they strove to adopt centrist stances and positions that were both 'PC' and in their view, ones which would make them potentially electable.

Trump's brilliant inspiration and shrewd vision was to recognize the size of this group of disenchanted voters, who were anything but a tiny fringe minority. Even had it been in his nature, which it probably is not, he was not going to tone down his views simply to make himself popular with the media or the 'men in clubs' in Washington.

He has effectively gone over the head of the political and media establishments and appealed to the masses – and masses they are. That's why to date he's been so successful and why he's created a political earthquake.

If nothing else, he's forcing the 'unheard masses' back into focus in the corridors of power.

Is Trump Electable?

Already, the Washington establishment is in danger of writing Trump off, should he get to stand against Hilary Clinton. The same tired-old clichés are being wheeled-out, branding him a racist, sexist and sadly deluded figure who does not represent a significant proportion of US society.

Those views may well be VERY naive.

It's already clear that Trump does not just appeal to older white and 'red neck' voters. His plain-speaking and lack of fear of controversy is striking a chord with many – and that might cross traditional Republican-Democrat demarcations.

For example, it's absurd and patronizing to postulate that African-Americans will not vote for Trump because of his views on immigration via Mexico. If they're struggling to find work and housing, then looking at local immigration issues as a possible contributory factor might be just as likely for African-American voters as White voters.

Equally, his stand on abortion might well strike a chord with significant numbers of predominantly Catholic Hispanic Americans, irrespective of his views on illegal immigration across the border or gun control.

Many voters of all political inclinations might be attracted to his stance on breaking the Washington establishment – whatever segment of society they come from.

Donald Trump is an astute man and has already proven himself to be a capable politician. His appeal may be wider-spread than many believe and he just might pull off an upset in the election. At the very least he's forcing some soul-searching in the DC corridors of power along the lines of "who knows the electorate best, us or Donald Trump?"

It's a question that's worrying the establishment to its core.

[ad_2]

Source by Eby M

[ad_1]

As in any part of the world, political influence is highly essential to start a business in India. Especially if you are planning to start a multi billion business, some sort of political patronage is an absolute necessity. Not only for safeguarding the interest of the company but even to begin the process of getting the required sanctions, one requires hold in the high echelons of politics and administrative circles.

Indian society is highly plural. It is the biggest democracy in the world with multi party political system. In population, India is second to China, with nearly 1200 million people. This is the most important consumer market in the world. It is a fast developing world. India is the third largest economy in the world and second fast growing economy in Asia. It has the tremendous potential of development with huge intellectual human force. With all these advantages and the huge market potential, world super entrepreneurs are looking for business establishments in India. With the overcrowded population and the millions of hard working and qualified personals, India offers a very cheap work force to the world. Many have realized the business potential in India, started exploring the unique opportunities of investments.

During the last couple of decades, India has opened its market to world. It has absolutely become an open global market. Banking sector, Insurance sector and all fields of industrial and business are now open for multi national investment. Of course there are many obstructions to cross. And mostly all issues can overcome and establish business if you have the political patronage.

India has a plural political system. With numerous political parties, national level and state level, it is very difficult to get a consensus among all parties for starting any business. Also these political parties have patronage of many factors, caste, creed and ideologies. There are political parties with left centric communist ideologies; they are totally against direct foreign investments. But other parties, who are main ruling coalition partners, have right centric ideologies and open for foreign investments. In most of the states, mostly local political parties are ruling. Political parties require financial patronage from big business establishments.

Many constituent states have realized the need for foreign investments in their state for a growth oriented economic situation. Hence the climate has changed a lot in India. So many privileges are offered to entrepreneurs to start business. With all these facilities, still political patronage is a must to start a business in India. Even after establishing the business, for a proper running of the business, political help is essential. It is mainly to sort out issues related to local taxes, labor problems and many such issues affecting the normal working of the companies.

[ad_2]

Source by Robert Grazian

[ad_1]

The Canadian political system as it is known today was first drafted by the "Fathers of Confederation" at the Quebec conference of 1864. This then became law when the constitution act was passed in 1867. This act gave the formal executive authority to Queen Victoria ( queen of Great Britain) which made Canada a sovereign democracy. The Canadian political system is therefore loosely based on the British system.

Now, Canada is an independent Federal state with the Queen still the head of state. Her powers are extremely limited however, as the Parliament passes the laws which the Queen gives the "Royal Assent" as the final step. The Governor General of Canada is the Queens representative in Canada and carries out all the Royal obligations when the Queen is not in Canada. The Governor is always a Canadian chosen by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister. The length of office is normally five years for the Governor General.

The Houses of Parliament (housing the Federal Government) are located in Canada's capital city, Ottawa. There are 3 main sections to the Canadian Parliament. The Queen as the Head of state; the Senate (appointed on the Prime Minister's recommendations) and the elected House of Commons.

The Federal Government has the power to "make laws for the peace, order and good government of Canada" which includes International policies, Defence, Immigration, Criminal Law, Customs and Border control.

The Senate

The Senate is made up of 105 Senators who are appointed by the Governor General on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. These Senators are men and women from all of the Provinces and from a wide variety of backgrounds. They can serve on the Senate up until age 75 and have to be a Canadian citizen, over age 30, own $ 4,000 of equity in land in their home Province, have over $ 4,000 as personal net worth and live in the province represented. Each Province or Territory has a set number of Senators – 24 each from the Maritimes, Quebec and Ontario, 6 each from Alberta, BC, Manitoba and Saskatchewan, 6 from Newfoundland and Labrador and a further 1 each from the three Territories.

The main role of the Senate is to read over and examine the "Bills" sent from the House of Commons though they can also initiate Bills. This process ensures that no rogue bills will become law, though only rarely do the Senate reject a Bill – sending it back to the House for amendment. The Bills are subjected to the full legislative process by the Senate and if passed will be given to the Governor General for Royal Assent and thus become Law.

House of Commons

The real power is held by the House of Commons. Here, the members of Parliament (MP's) are elected by the general public during a Federal election – normally every 5 years. The country is split up into constituencies (total 308 by population size) and whichever candidate has the most votes wins the right to represent that constituency and take their "seat" in the Parliament.

Each Most candidates represent a particular political party and the party with the most "seats" takes over as the Government. The main parties in Canada are Paul Martins Liberals (ruling), Stephen Harpers Conservatives, Jack Layton's New Democratic Party, The Bloc Quebecois and The Green Party to name the largest.

The leader of the political party that wins the election becomes the Prime Minister of Canada (currently Paul Martin of the Liberals). The Prime Minister effectively runs the country with the support and advice of his Cabinet. The Cabinet is made up of "Ministers" chosen by the Prime Minister to be responsible for certain areas of the Government. There are ministers of Health, Finance, Defence and Immigration to name a few. These areas of responsibility are called "Portfolio's" and each minister will have a large team of civil servants (normally the experts in that field) working for him / her. Only the ministers change during an election – not the civil servants.

Though the MP's represent their local constituency, their main duties are debating the laws to be made and, depending on their Party, either supporting or opposing the Government. The opposition is the political party with the second most seats in the House and their main job is to hold the government accountable for their decisions.

A Government with a lot of seats in the House will be strong and able to pass most laws they want through Parliament. Conversely, a weak Government (such as now) does not have the majority of the seats and has to rely on the support of another party to form an effective Government.

After each election, the Senate and the House of Commons either elect (House) or appoint (Senate) a Speaker. The Speaker is in charge of proceedings and has to be impartial, enforcing the rules of the House / Senate during debates and votes. The Speaker presides over the House from a raised chair with the Government MP's om the right and the opposition on the Left.

Making the Laws

To start with, the House of Commons members introduce a "Bill" (legislative proposal). The details of the Bill are read in the House without debate and then the Bill is printed (the first reading).

During the second reading the principles of the Bill are debated followed by a vote. If successful, the Bill is then sent to the Committee stage.

A committee will listen to testimony, examine the Bill and then submits a report to the House recommending it as it is, with amendments or scrapped. From here it goes to the report stage.
In the report phase, any amendments are debated and voted on. Then it will pass to the third reading. This is where the House finally debates and votes on the final draft – if it passes the vote it is sent to the Senate.

The Senate put the Bill through the same process as the House – if it comes through all that (normally does!) It is given Royal Assent and becomes Canadian Law!

Detailed information on more this subject ca be found at Http://www.onestopimmigration-canada.com

[ad_2]

Source by Dave Lympany

[ad_1]

John Dryden (1631-1700), the major poet of the Restoration Age, was born at Aldwincle, a village near Oundle in Northampton shire. His paternal grand father named Sir Eramus Dryden was a baroner and his mother was Lady Pickering, the first cousin of Sir Gilbert Pickering. He received his primary education in the village school of neighbouring Tichmarsh. From Tichmarsh, he passed on to Westminster school about the year 1642. From Westminster, he went to Trinity College, Cambridge in 1650.He was close to Sir Robert Howard that friendship caused of his marriage with Lady Elizabeth in 1663, the daughter of his friend, but the marriage proved unhappy.

Undoubtedly, he was an original and discriminating critic. Dr Johnson called him, "the father of English Criticism". Besides, he was the founder of modern prose style. He was an outstanding poet and dramatist. In his age, minor literary critics were so many with their erratic work, but the major contemporaries with significant work were Thomas Rhymer, John Dennis and Jeremy Collier. It would be better to discuss social and literary background of his age (1660-1700).

A. Social Background:

The Age of Dryden begins with the Restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660 till the death of the poet in 1700. It will not be exaggeration to say that he was the dominant literary figure who nicely represented the period. His age was deeply influenced by the three historical events: the Restoration of Charles II in 1660, the religious and political controversies and the Popish plot, and the Golden Revolution of the year 1688. As far as the Restoration of Charles II is concerned, it increased corruption etc. It took a violent reaction against the Puritan restraints. All the values ​​of society, what the Puritan had prevailed, were violated. The king was very odd had a number of mistresses and illegitimate children. He was irresponsible and unpatriotic who always stood against his promises, broke his treaty with the Dutch and with his own ministers and betrayed his country. His court was dishonourable and the parliament passed the bills against the church and the state with the thirst of revenge from those who were connected with the puritan government of Cromwell. The House of Lords was increased by the creation of hereditary titles, desecrated men and unabashed women. Even the judiciary was not safe.

In this era, the unpleasantness in the field of religious and political parties was strongly vivid. There were the two central political parties, the Whigs and the Tories. They divided the atmosphere of the country with their touch. The Whigs was in favour of limiting the royal power in the interests of the nation and the parliament, where as the Tories was different and it supported the 'divine right' theory of the kings. The both parties proved fruitful for the men of literary abilities. They were in pursuit of the support and bribed them with places and pensions. The writers of the day were not free from the political bias and contest.

The religious conflict or bias was more bitter. The nation was dominantly protestant and the catholic worked under a number of disabilities. They had to pay higher taxes and were not permitted to hold any office under the Crown. Such hatred for Catholics was a great issue of that times writing.

Apart from it, in this era the Popish plot comes because the king was very weak in the field of religion but his brother was a Roman Catholic. Charles II had no legitimate son or heir of the throne. After him, his brother James would sit on the throne. The plot was made to exclude him from the throne and create the atmosphere to sit the Duke of Monmouth, an illegitimate son of Charles II. This controversy was called Popish plot by Titus Oates. Shaftsbury made various attempts to exclude James but the king supported his brother and the way was cleaned for the accession of James. The famous poem of Dryden, Absalam and Achitophel reflects or interprets these religious or political controversies or prejudices of the day.

James II ascended the throne in 1685. He had various plots and under them, he tried to establish Catholicism in the country. Such misrule made him quite unpopular in his country in a short time. In reaction, the nation stood against him and the Bloodless Revolution of 1688 restored the country to pleasant and healthy atmosphere after the suffering of immorality and corruption which had been running since the Restoration. James was exiled and the protestant William and Mary sat on the throne.

B. Literary Background:

In literature, this school of criticism is called Neo-classical, pseudo classical or Augustan Age. In this era, literary men began to imitate the French writers. It was a blind imitation led them copy the worst work instead of using their wit. So it was only copy. They call it Augustan Age because the writers of the time considered their age was as glorious as the age of King Augustus Caesar of Rome. That age produced brilliant literary figures as Horace, Virgil, Longinous and Quintillian. Where as, in this pseudo-classical age, John Dryden was a dominant figure that's why it is called the Age of Dryden.

The rise of Neo-Classicism broke away the chains of Puritanism. The Post Restoration literature was of Elizabethan Age where as the neo-classical literature stood opposite to the Elizabethan Romanticism. Before Dryden, Sir Philip Sidney and Ben Jonson were two great poets of Elizabethan Age. After Ben Jonson, literary activity in England suffered a lot. Between Ben Jonson and John Dryden is hardly found any major critic because of religious and social controversies. The Restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660 penetrated a favourable atmosphere with French influence that supplanted sensuous and romantic Italian influence. Charles II and the other literary men were under this influence because they had passed the most time in France. On the return to England, they brought a new gale of French literature, which renounced old ideals and standards. They demanded the English poetry on the new style. The Italian influence was forgone and the literary men started to imitate the French writers blindly. So they copied the worst work instead of using their wit. The influence of French comedy is seen in clumsiness and indecency of The Restoration Comedy of Manners of Dryden, Wycherley and Congreve. The mutual influence of French and Classical models of tragedy is seen in a new genre, the heroic tragedy. It is well represented by Dryden's 'Tyrannic Love'. This influence is also responsible for the growth of the opera in the Restoration England.

This reaction was against the romantic inclinations and favoured realism to a great extent. In case of realism, its inception was very bad. The early Restoration writers painted realistic pictures of a corrupt court and society. Their emphasis was on vices rather than virtues and produced coarse and low plays without interest or moral significance. Later, it got change and increased the writers' interest for the study of practical motives which ruled human actions. One can not gainsay from this statement that it was the reaction against the extravagances of both the Elizabethans and the Metaphysical. John Donne is a metaphysical poet and his followers liked a revolt in favour of order, balance and sanity in literature. They used unlimited hyperboles, far- fetched and violent similes and metaphors and conceits. This reaction supported the tendency towards directness and simplicity and expression. The writers of previous ages were fond of using extravagance in thought and language. The sentences were enriched with classical quotations and references. The Restoration writers opposed it and formed rules and said fare well to the romantic fancy. So the emphasis was on correctness and decorum. Correctness means to foster moderate opinions moderately expressed. The decorum was to pursue the rules of ancients as interpreted by the French. Dryden clearly marked this new tendency and by virtue of his influence, the writers developed that formalism of style which was wrongly called classicism.

In this age, the growth of science, religious and political controversies was found. All gave birth to prose. Arnold says, "The Restoration marks the real moment of birth of our modern English prose." The previous writers were erratic and their work was over loaded with classical allusions and quotations.Actually, the Elizabethan prose was not appropriate for telling a plain story. The epigrammatic style of Bacon and the grandiloquent prose of Milton could not be suitable for scientific, historical, political and philosophical writings or novel -writing. The spirit of this new type of prose developed and Dryden was the chief leader. His work, 'Dramatic Poesy' introduced a new model of prose which was completely different from the prose of previous ages. He wrote in a plain, simple but precise style, free from exaggeration. The other writers also came under his influence and they also helped to develop the new prose style by their own individual advance. It was rather free from monotony.

Prose was the eminent style or weapon of this era. Even the poetry of this era was also prosaic and it was used for narrative, satiric or didactic purposes. The poetry was for the purpose of persuasion but not for inspiration. It was the favourable style of narrating the controversies that caused the growth of satire. The best poetry of this eon is satirical. Dryden's 'Absalom and Achitophel' is a best known political satire. In this satire, Dryden defends the king against the Earl of Shaftesbury who is represented as Achitophel. His other work 'Mac Flecknoe' is an example of personal satire. It also contains a scathing personal attack on Thomas Shadwell who was once a friend of Dryden. 'The Rehearsal' depicts the literary vices of the time and is the first literary satire in English literature. His other two poems 'Religio laici' and 'The Hind and the Panther' are theological and controversial.

The other contribution to this age was the growth and the perfection of the heroic couplet. Chaucer used it but insisted on the thought or notion. Where as the writers of the Restoration gave importance to the form. Waller and Dryden used it with literary fashion. The couplet became "Closed". Its pair of lines showed a complete thought and was stated as precisely as could be. So it became the order of the day and all other forms of versification were expelled. The dominancy remained a single century and later its freshness passed away.

Such controversies disturbed the age a lot but added a great help in case of literature. It also proved John Dryden an exponent of this neo-classicism and Bunyan was, too, appreciated who worked like John Milton. It brought novelty and expelled monotony from the literature.

[ad_2]

Source by Ali Asghar Joyo

[ad_1]

There are many types of subplots used in novels. Some types of subplots include a romantic subplot, political, macabre, artful / environmental subplots, historical subplots, thought path subplots, and character subplots. A subplot is a small story that is told throughout part, or all, of the main plot. There is no limit on how many subplots there can be, but there are limitations to how well authors can maintain such plots. There are a few key subplots that nearly every story uses.

Romantic Subplots
These are subplots that provide great filler moments throughout a novel, especially when you're experiencing writer's block. Romantic subplots can be copy plots of other romantic scenes, which is why they're great additions to the main plot when you are having difficulty proceeding.

Political Subplots
Nearly every book utilizes this game of politics within their story. The only novels that can not use this are those meant for a reading age that is too young to comprehend the complexities. These subplots are fantastic for filling in large gaps if you are having a tough time connecting sections of the main plot.

In a political subplot, a character explores the politics or social situations of their environment. This can range from how horribly a teen parent reacts to a situation, to a war room gathering where everyone discusses what's supposed to happen. While politics usually mean dealing with some form of government, political subplots deal with environmental hierarchies.

Macabre Subplots
You know that show that replays the same corny line during a mysterious investigation, or how a novel spends a useless amount of time describing the intentions of a bad person? This is a macabre subplot, and it tends to be quite useful in the beginning of fantasy novels. Good examples of novels that begin with macabre sub-plots are Lord of the Rings, by JRRTolkien, and Harry Potter by JK Rowling.

Harry Potter even maintains the macabre sub-plot and brings it into the main plot.
A macabre sub-plot carries its own story of horror fiction, but is useful for an aspect of the main plot. This is not to say that a description of how the murderer killed a victim is a subplot, but if that description is used to identify the difference between two different murderers then the description becomes a macabre sub-plot.

Artful / Environmental Subplots
These sub-plots are very unique as they use the environment as if it has a story of its own. These sub-plots are very difficult to create, and even harder to maintain. They require an artistically tuned mind to describe how the environment has a story of its own. The sub-plot may be so subtle that the reader does not take notice.

Historical Subplots
These subplots are extremely short and are useful when bringing in a new character that would not normally have been there. These subplots refer to something that has already happened but the reader is unaware of it. Most of the time, the historical subplot is introduced by using words such as two hours before or meanwhile. These subplots are often deeply tied into the main plot.

Thought Path Subplots
When you've got nothing to write and when all other subplots seem pointless, the thought path subplot is your savior. This is where you take the reader's attention away from the storyline to explore a character's thought process of everything that is happening or will happen.

Character Subplots
These subplots are extremely difficult to maintain without losing focus on the main character. They are usually found within stories that use the past of an auxiliary character to describe actions that would otherwise be illogical. A character subplot is a small story behind a character or a secondary main plot that is heavily entwined with the main plot, such as a mother's view and a daughter's view.

[ad_2]

Source by John Halas

[ad_1]

Animal Farm, a masterpiece novella by George Orwell was written in 1945. It falls under novella as it is shorter and contains a less complex plot unlike a novel. The crux matter of Animal Farm is about how Czarist Russia evolved into communist Russia after the Russian Revolution in 1917. Orwell used the animal farm as the backdrop representing Russia and the animals that dwelled in the farm as the who's who in the Russian Revolution. The Animal Farm is an allegory-a narrative that uses literary devices to unveil concealed meanings and messages.

The Oxford Dictionary defines allegory as a story, poem, or picture which can be interpreted to reveal a hidden meaning, typically a moral or political one. Not only that, Animal farm is also a satire. The same Oxford Dictionary defines a satire as the use of humour, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule to mock, expose and criticize people's stupidity or vices, particularly in the context of contemporary politics and other social issues. Animal farm fits into both these categories aptly.

At the time when the book was published, it was not that popular, did not command a widespread reading because Russia was an ally of the West in their fight against German aggression under Hitler in World War II. In a clear indication of belittling the Russians and its communist leaders, the western world saw it as an act of non-goodwill if they popularized the book in droves.

The author himself was not an anti-communist. In fact George Orwell is said to be a socialist who supported the belief that industries should be under the control of the working class (workers) for the good of everyone, not just benefitting the elites, who controlled these industries. However, he witnessed the corrupt revolution of the communist in Russia, eventually leading to a change of perception.

Orwell was perplexed on how the communist had diverted, departed from their initial noble goals of seeking a classless society. Orwell's conviction was that he owes the world a warning of how destructive unchecked authority was.

He was adamant to show the other side of communism when it was taken too far without a check and balance and how the leaders of this cause succumbed to worldly pleasures, the same class bound pleasures that they despised on other ideologies; hence the world got to witness the birth of Animal Farm. Orwell had used allegory to the best of effect, to criticize the hypocrisy of communism, especially its overzealous leaders, their actions and their thirst for merciless murders and mass killings to maintain their status quo.

The use of pigs, of all animals, was the acme of this novella. In the thought of a layman, pigs are lazy animals, non-productive and gleefully end as meat in most taste buds. However, Orwell was way ahead of his time. He used pigs as his protagonists and antagonists in Animal Farm for the same reasons of how modern science had revealed quite shockingly though, about these creatures. Scientists want people to think of pigs as more than just meat. Among other talents, pigs are known to have excellent long-term memories and they are skilled at completing mazes and recognizing symbols, just like our close cousins-chimpanzees. They also have empathy and can learn from each other in groups.

Besides that, Orwell had used pigs as an irony, debunking all the myths surrounding these fleshy creatures as lazy but wise, gluttonous but conniving, immobile but strategist who is vivacious in thoughts, plotting and scheming a plan discreetly. Pigs are fleshy, sized animals known for their slobs. Orwell was quick in equating some world leaders especially from the communist ideology states to pigs probably because of the state of hypocrisy that they lived their lives; floating in the wealth produced by the proletariat who for a major part of their miserable lives remained poor and desolate, where else the leaders were fat, ugly and precariously healthy.

The Old Major in Animal Farm was a pig, portrayed as old and wise, experienced and well-respected. Old Major had a dream where 'all animals are equal'. This was relayed to the animals, who rejoiced in the prospect of relieving themselves from the clutches of the elites – the humans. Orwell used Old Major to represent Karl Marx, the founder of Communism and the Communist Manifesto, which is based on Marxism. The words uttered by Old Major represent Marx's words on the evils of feudalism and capitalism.

The utterance also accentuated on the idealistic world of communism. Thereby, the Russian Revolution in 1917 was inspired by those who believed big in the doctrines of communism. In Marxist methodology, it originally used economic and sociopolitical inquiry to analyze and critique the development of capitalism and the role of class struggle in systemic economic change.

According to Marxist doctrines, class conflict within capitalism arises due to escalating contradictions between highly productive mechanized and socialized production performed by the proletariat (workers), and private ownership and appropriation of the surplus product in the form of surplus value (profit) by a small minority of private owners called the bourgeoisie. In the Animal Farm, the bourgeoisie were represented by Mr. and Mrs. Jones, the humans who owned the animals, frequently ill-treating them. Mr. and Mrs. Jones can also be equated in direct reference to the last Czar of Russia – Nicholas II and his consort Alexandria who were disliked by the Russians at that time for unnecessarily dragging Russia into World War I. Apparently, the animals exhausted their patience, began to rebel , eventually booting the humans out of the farm and took control of their own destiny.

Besides Old major, another pig character was Snowball. Snowball rose as one of the leaders in Animal Farm. Snowball was depicted as a vivacious and an ingenious character. He was given the task of spreading the attained glory of Animal Farm throughout the neighbourhood. Snowball represents Leon Trotsky – Lenin's second in command in the Russian Revolution and the leader of the 'Red Army' in the subsequent Russian Civil War.

Trotsky also wanted to spread the word about communism to other nations. However, fate had it differently when both Snowball and Trotsky were expunged by ruthless and corrupt individuals who craved for power more than anything else.

Napoleon was another pig character who rose as a leader in the novella. Rather than influencing other animals and working through consensus, he secretly raised nine puppies into ferocious man-eating animals. These nine puppies were his personal army of bodyguards which he used and manipulated to achieve his goals, no matter how treacherous and brutal they were. Napoleon represents Josef Stalin-the General Secretary of the Russian Communist Party from 1922 until his death in 1952.

The nine puppies were an analogy to the KGB – the Communist party's secret police, known for its ruthlessness. The KGB carried out all of Stalin's commands religiously without fear or favour.

The false confessions of disloyalty in Animal Farm, and the subsequent executions were modeled at Stalin's great purge in the 1930s in which anyone who is seen as a counter-revolutionist was killed mercilessly.

Squealer, another character in Animal Farm is a pig who always spread persuasive messages supporting the leader's goals and objectives. Squealer is an embodiment of hypocrisy and propaganda. He reinvents the rules and history in order to confuse the other animals in the farm. He could also represent Pravda- the communist newspaper in Russia which was the official propaganda mouthpiece of the party in the 1930s. With his wizardry like words and manipulative articulation, Squealer kept the public (the animals) calm and under control with his often misleading and crooked messages and announcements.

Animal Farm serves as a reminder of how humans crave for unlimited power to rule the lives of innocent people through 'divide and rule' and 'manage by fear' tactics to achieve their personal goals. Along that line, some made it into the history books as either being exemplary or despised. This novella is excellent to be used as a reading resource for middle and high school students.

Students will not only learn the English Language, but also the various literary devices – allegory, satire, irony, metaphor and personification that come with it. The novella contains lots of humour from which the writer mocks the actions of the leader and students will also be able to apply their thoughts out of the box to identify why some individuals had managed to obtain power, how some maintained this power at all cost, how some misused the power entrusted on them for their own personal gains and agenda, how some abused their power using violence and threats, and how some had lost to the people-power insurgencies.

Apart from that, the historical events representing this novella will provide an insight of Communism and Russian history. Marxism subsequently gained support across much of Europe, and under the control of the Bolshevik Party, a communist government seized power during the Russian revolution, leading to the creation of the Soviet Union, the world's first Marxist state, in the early 20th century.

[ad_2]

Source by RG Mohan Rethnaswamy

[ad_1]

Florida's phosphate dilemma started a lifetime ago when fate and the Army Corps of Engineers happened to uncover a valuable resource called phosphate (4). Little did Floridians know, the Florida phosphate industry was born.

The Florida phosphate industry can trace its roots back to Coronet Phosphate Company started in 1906. (4) The industry was small for many years because phosphate mining at that time was back breaking work with picks, shovels, and wheelbarrows in mosquito infested areas. During the middle of the 20th century (2), phosphate mining changed forever, with the introduction of the drag line.

The mining story continues in the 1950's by the Smith-Douglas Corp. located in Norfolk, Virginia until about 1960. Agrico Chemical Co. bought and operated the phosphate mines until 1973. At that time, Gardinier, a French mining company purchased and operated Florida's major phosphate mines. (1)

I remember Gardinier phosphate trucks passing through the town of Brandon, Florida on State Road Highway 60 in the 1970's. In Southwest Central Florida, Highway 60 is the main truck route from the largest phosphate mines in Bartow and Mulberry, and other sites as well, to the shipping Port of Tampa, FL.

In 1985, Cargill Fertilizer, Inc. bought and operated the phosphate mines until 1994 when the Mosaic Co. purchased the phosphate mines and still owns them today.

As you can see, the phosphate industry starting in 1950's through present day has passed the environmental catastrophes on to the next mining company owner, one after another for over 70 years. That is how long it took to build the mountainous gypsum stacks we see today on the Florida landscape. The radioactive gypsum stacks have taken an entire generation to make.

During the last 70 years, you may ask, where do Florida's elected officials stand? Florida's elected officials stand with the phosphate industry and have for decades. Florida's elected officials and phosphate mine owners love money enough to fight the federal government, the EPA's Superfund project, and countless environmentally based lawsuits to keep the mines open for business, seemingly without concern for Florida residents.

Florida's elected officials say the phosphate industry is too important for the state's economy to impose fines or force the phosphate industry to neutralize their severe man-made environmental catastrophes. Am I saying Florida's elected officials are not protecting their constituents for the all mighty dollar? You bet your bottom I am. These statements are based on well-known facts and not just my opinion as you will see, please read on.

The example that follows will give you some idea of ​​the political power in phosphate mining. In 2003, the EPA officials stated a potential problem in Lakeland, FL. The problem was so bad that they (EPA) considered certain sub-divisions in Lakeland, FL to be candidates for emergency cleanup action. Also, low-income and minority communities might also be affected, internal documents show.

However, Florida's elected officials intervened, and the agency (EPA) Superfund project did little more in the way of studying the issue over the subsequent decade. Local residents were kept from hearing the EPA concerns, and no remedial actions were taken. Also, no local news or national news affiliate mentioned the contaminated residential properties in Lakeland, FL sub-divisions. How can this be you ask?

Florida's phosphate mining industry owners, who champion the second largest revenue producing industry in Florida (2), made it known that they vigorously opposed the EPA declaring the parcels Superfund sites. Such a move could make mining companies liable for up to 11 billion dollars in cleanup costs, according to estimates of the potential scope of the contamination that the EPA inspector general included in a 2004 report.

The EPA gave up their argument after a decades-long battle with Florida politicians and phosphate industry officials over the clean-up of phosphate mining toxic waste "in an area that could expose more than 100,000 residents to cancer-causing radiation levels." The EPA submits and will leave it to Florida's elected officials to decide the fate of the sites in and around Lakeland, FL.

As described above, the EPA did little to escalate the issue at Lakeland area sites until 2010, agency documents show. By now, EPA officials estimated that as many as 120,000 residents living in 40,000 homes are exposed to potentially unsafe radiation levels. (3)

Following news reports in 2010 about the standoff between Florida's politicians and the EPA, the EPA officials began making plans for an aerial radiation survey that was to enable them to get a better idea of ​​the scope and severity of any contamination (3). However, the progress stalled after a group of Florida politicians "pressured" the EPA not to conduct the survey.

Florida's elected officials said they do not believe direct exposure to radiation from the soil is a significant risk. Florida's officials said radium contaminated soils are not of concern, but indoor radium should be targeted instead.

Removing indoor radon contamination is generally less expensive than cleaning contaminated soil. Indoor radon pollution can often be cleaned through the installation of ventilation systems while cleaning radium-contaminated soil can require massive excavation projects at an enormous expense.

Based on the EPA, focusing on radon, but not soil contamination is not how the federal government would typically address a contaminated site. The EPA believes this approach will not account for the gamma ray exposure to residents, and does not account for the risk of inhaling or ingesting the contaminated soils.

In addition, the EPA benchmark level that Florida's elected officials say they would use to determine whether action is needed to address indoor radon pollution is not based on health considerations. Instead, it is based on how much radon current ventilation technology is capable of eliminating.

According to the federal agency's website, there is no "safe" level of radon exposure. (3) The US Congress passed legislation in 1988 setting a goal of reducing indoor radon levels to between 0.2 and 0.7 picocuries per liter, but the technology needed to meet this objective did not yet exist.

Even though the EPA's Superfund program does consider the amount of radon gas entering homes, decisions related to remediating man-made radium contamination are usually driven primarily by how much of the radioactive materials are found in the soil. The EPA may have undermined, due to political pressure and the lack of funding, their "entire regulatory structure" for cleanup of radium-contaminated soils.

Reference

1. Acquisition History | State Lands | Florida DEP.
2. State of Florida.com
3. State Library and Archives of Florida
4. Florida Memory. com

[ad_2]

Source by David Hammock